Abstract

Warfare is an activity that has been conducted between humans since ages. Humans repeatedly practiced this activity, employed multiple strategies, and used different weapons in order to vanquish the enemy. Among these innumerable weapons, biological and chemical are of substantial significance. These biological and chemical agents have been used historically as weapons of destruction by states. The concept of using bio and chemical agents is even before the concept of statehood. These infectious weapons were employed in wars so as to vanquish the enemy forces. These weapons were available for a long, but their use was only sporadically, and they were employed stealthily.

Key Words

Great Powers Competition, Biosecurity, Biological, and Chemical Weapons, Bioterrorism

Introduction

The great powers used chemical and biological weapons for ages against their enemies. Even these deadly and lethal were used by great powers in World War I, World War II, and during the cold war era. The use of bio and chemical weapons by states also shifted in the hands of non-state actors like extremist religious groups. The chapter will explain that the use of chemical and biological weapons by states later shifted in the hands of terrorist groups hence giving rise to the phenomena of bioterrorism and making the world an unsafe place for humans to Historical use of biological and chemical agents by great powers:

Infectious pathogens were used by empires like Assyrians. Assyrians made the wells toxicant using rye ergot for their foe. Similarly, the Solon of Athens poisoned the well with skunk cabbage during the besiegement of Kirrha, consequently causing the natives to become severely sick and not able to move. Moreover, Hannibal, the Carthaginian general commander in the navy, used poisonous snakes against the enemy. (Joel 2021) As Hannibal came across an immense great adversary who possessed a large fleet under the command of King Eumenes, he used this strategy. Hannibal knew that the king would be present on one of the ships, to reveal his presence, he sent a message to the king. The king's presence was revealed as messengers took the message to the king. Hence in this way, Hannibal was able to use his strategy. He intentionally commanded the clay pots to be filled with poisonous snakes, and as the combat set about few ships was sent straight to king Eumenes ship, which threw clay pots filled with poisonous snake. Hence this strategy projected by Hannibal gave them tactical benefit and defeated the opponent's ship. Herodotus, a Greek historian, stated that the police force of Athens in the 4th century used arrows infected from the corpse of a common death adder and the blood of a human. It is believed that bacterium like Clostridium perfringens and Clostridium Tetani was involved in the mixture. The first recorded use of the biological weapon was by Mongol forces. These forces used plague-infected bodies and catapult them into the port of the Black sea, Caffa (today known as Feodosiya, a city of Ukraine). According to chronicles, the ships later moved from here to Italy and hence carried with them plague, consequently spreading the infectious disease in the whole of Europe. The disease was termed as Black Death, killing 25 million people, nearly one-third of the population. In the war of Carolstein, which took place in 1422, the Lithuanian soldiers hurled infected bodies toward their adversary, which resulted in the breaking out of fatal fever among them, causing the death of a number of people. Smallpox had also been used as a weapon to vanquish the opponent in early times. (Barras 2014) In the 15th century, Pizarro, a conquistador, is considered as the one who first used smallpox as a weapon against the Inca tribe by proffering gifts to the Inca, which were clothes infected with smallpox during the vanquishment of Peru. This epidemic killed the Incan emperor leaving the empire in turmoil. The infectious agent devastated the empire to such an extent that it paved the way for Pizarro's forces to vanquish the empire easily. The devastating effect of disease was such great that an empire equal to Italy and Spain was captured by only 168 men. Small pox had been used as bioweapon as early as the 14th century by tartar forces who put corpses infected by smallpox in the town of an adversary to defeat and weaken them. The Russian army, while fighting against the forces of the Swedish in 1710, also used corpses infected from the plague. They hurled these infectious corpses over the wall of the city, Tallinn. The British forces during the rebellion of Pontiac used small pox as a bioweapon against the American Indians in 1763, consequently causing the pernicious spread of the epidemic. During the Pontiac war, the famous "smallpox blanket" incident took place as smallpox was used as a bioweapon against the Native Americans. The British army use smallpox as an agent to vanquish its opponent during the siege of Fort Pitt in 1763. During negotiations in the midst of the siege, Captain Ecuyer gave two blankets and a handkerchief exposed to smallpox to the besieging army chief of Delaware, Turtle Heart. The aim was to spread the disease among the natives and end the siege. Even the militia commander William Trent in a letter to the British army, wrote, "we gave those two Blankets and a Handkerchief out of the Small Pox Hospital. I hope it will have the desired effect" The Spanish forces during the wars in southern Italy in 1495 provided their French foes wine poisoned by leprosy patients' blood. In the 17th century, the saliva of rabid dog was used by Polish forces against their adversary. These two methods were not much effective in spreading the infectious disease and achieving the outcomes which the forces desired. As leprosy disease is infectious only in the best of conditions. Hence in early history, attempts to spread the infectious disease and put the enemy at a disadvantage were only impeded due to less understanding; otherwise, states during the wars tried to employ the infectious pathogens so as to defeat their adversary.

During the Walcheren Campaign, malaria was used by the French army as a biological weapon to vanquish the British army when the Britain force of nearly 39,000 men reached Walcheren in order to help the Austrian force against the French force. Napoleon, to defeat his adversary, allowed malaria in the countryside of Holland to spread pervasively. Napoleon stated that "We must oppose the English with nothing but fever, which will soon devour them all." This strategy halted the British mission, and thousands of soldiers went to the hospital. (Clark, J. 2021)

Use of Biological and Chemical Weapons by states in the 20th Century

Germany

Germany, during World War I operated a

surreptitious biological program. The program conducted furtive operations as Germans injected the bovine and horses with the bacterium Bacillus anthracis, which causes disease, anthrax, and other bacterium which causes glanders. These animals were to be shipped to the USA and other states. Moreover, Germany was accused of outspreading Cholera in Italy and Plague in Russia.




Japan

Japan, during World War II also engaged in biological warfare programs. The research on bioagents began in 1932 and continued till World War II. The program was conducted under the command of Shiro Ishii, who was a medical officer and microbiologist. The biowarfare center was entitled as Unit 731. In the center, the prisoners of war were exposed to deadly infectious agents, and hence experiments were conducted. More than 10,000 captives died due to experiments conducted under the warfare program. During the Sino Japanese war, the Japanese even used plague, anthrax, and other infectious bioweapons against the Chinese covertly. Nearly 11 northeastern cities of China were attacked by these bioweapons, causing the death of 700 people. During the combats the Japanese forces also used chemical weapons such as lethal gases like phosgene, mustard gas, and tear gas against the impuissant Chinese forces. (Fenn, E. A. 2000)




Soviet Union

The Soviet Union initiated the development program of germ weapons in the 1920s.The initial attempts included primeval techniques like entire animals were infected with deadly pathogens. Besides, the first generation program of the Soviet Union include natural pathogens, which caused disastrous epidemics in First World War. But later, the Soviet Union developed the most advanced, efficient, and potent bioweapons on the basis of genetically modified agents. Even such variants of pathogens such as plague, glanders, and anthrax were developed, which were antibiotic-resistant. These developed strains were more helpful for military operations. The Soviet Union hence conducted covert programs of developing sophisticated weapons of mass destruction. In Second World War, Dr. Alibekov, former deputy director of the Soviet Union biological program, Biopreparat stated that the bacterium which causes tularemia was used against the German forces in World War II (Battle of Stalingrad). The Soviet Union established numerous biological programs facilities by the 1960s, and even after signing the Biological Weapons Convention of 1972, the Soviet Union continued biological operations. The Soviet Union thus continued covert operations. By the 1980s, the Soviet Union's biological warfare program comprised of nearly fifty facilities, and 60,000 persons were involved; hence it stored up numerous bioagents. (André 2008)

In 1979, in the city of the USSR, a militarily compound exploded, causing the release of toxins; consequently, the citizens in the surrounding area got high fever , were unable to breathe even, and nearly 40 individuals died. According to some sources, the death rate reached to 1000. After many years Russian president Yeltsin divulged that the epidemic was the cause of the coincidental release of spores of anthrax. He stated that "The KGB admitted that our military developments were the cause."  The incident showed that even after signing the 1972 Biological Weapon Convention Soviet Union was involved in operating clandestine biowarfare programs. Yeltsin, after the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991, then announced to halt the offensive biological warfare program, but the Russian ministry of defense kept on operating the programs secretly. (Report 2015)




United States of America

The United States of America, during the Second World War, developed techniques for manufacturing Botulinum, a toxin, on a massive scale. The researchers involved in the program during their work mentioned the toxin as agent X. U.S. expanded its offensive biological weapons programs after Great War II, so United States after the WWII initiated programs for developing the atomizers which can spread bio and chemical agents via missile or plane. Moreover it also amasses large quantity of anthrax. During the Vietnam War, American defense forces used Agent Orange against the adversary. The purpose was to destroy trees where the North Vietnamese forces might hide themselves moreover also ruin the crops upon which the enemy forces feed. The chemical was poisonous to such an extent that the Vietnamese which expose to it later suffered from skin diseases, cancers, disability, congenial defects and other problems. In 2004 white phosphorous (WP) was even used by the military of the U.S in the battle of Fallujah. Although white phosphorus use is lawful if it used to light up the battleground but if it is the directly used against humans than it is considered as chemical weapon because its direct use is potentially harmful as its contact can result in severe burn of eyes and lasting damage. The U.S government initially stated that the WP was used to lighten the positions of the adversary, but later they stated that the chemical was not used to illuminate ground rather was used as "as a potent psychological weapons against the insurgents in trench lines and spider holes" Hence the American government admitted the use of chemical  as a weapon. (Britannica 2019)




People Republic of China 

The involvement with chemical agents of the People's Republic of China preceded even its independence. The Chinese warlords in the 1920s showed their interest either to purchase or wanted the European industries to assist them in the manufacturing of chemical weapons. Even the Zhang Zholin, a Chinese warlord contracted with German firm Witte for establishment of chemical weapon facility. Moreover chemical engineers of Russia and Germany were hired so as to supervise production of gases such as mustard, chlorine and phosgene. Zhao Heng another warlord also shipped gas producing shells. Chiang Kai-shek leader of KMT since 1940 to 1945 controlled chemical warfare center in Naqi, China. The KMT even controlled chemical mortar unit. Later as CCP won the civil war thus the fate of these units in unknown but the chemical equipment left by the Japan are considered too fell into hands of CCP by U.S. (Report. 2019)

The Chinese have been conducting offensive research work regarding biological weapons in the Xinjiang province according to Ken Alibek in the book "biohazard". According to intelligence sources, the outbreak of the hemorrhagic fever epidemic was the result of offensive research. Ken Alibek writes that the outbreak was due to accidental release of virus from the lab where Chinese researchers have been weaponizing viral diseases.




Great Britain

Great Britain deployed chemical weapons for the first time in the battle of Loos against the German forces. Chlorine gas was released against the enemy troops. The British army even used chemical agents as weapons during their mandate over Iraq in the 1920s. The British air force is accused of dropping gas bombs against the Iraqi forces and it was termed as "air policing". (Raymond 2020)

Security Dilemma and Biowarfare Competition among Great Powers

The advancement in technology and science has paramount effects on the politics and security of the international system. As the development and advancement of nuclear arsenals between the two great powers in the cold war led to a situation of security dilemma and trust deficit and thus the two states USA and USSR engaged themselves in stockpiling of nuclear weapons. This stockpiling of nuclear weapons resulted in deterrence and hence prevented war among major powers, but at the same time it generated fear of being overpowered, and thus any miscalculation between great powers would have led to apocalypse. It also extended concerns regarding the proliferation of nuclear weapons as other states also started to work on their own nuclear deterrence. Moreover besides nuclear threat, security dilemma regarding the proliferation of bioagents and biowarfare emerged. As the great powers in order to vanquish their enemy in World War I and II previously had also used chemical and biological weapons. (Jonathan 1999). 

Hence the equally momentous security dilemma which emerged was the bioweapon proliferation. Due to this competition in the domain of biowarfare a biological Weapon Convention of 1972 was signed, and it prohibited the states from executing offensive research but at the same time convention allowed the states to conduct the defensive research which meant that the states were allowed to conduct research and experiments with same offensive and deadly germs and microbial agents. The great powers involved in competition against each other resultantly confined themselves to bioweapons security dilemma and escalated their research in this domain. These states took advantage of genetic engineering involving the manipulation of genetic makeup which emerged later and in dual use of technology. This was vivid by the anthrax attack incident of 2001. 

The contemporary defensive scientific research and practices of great powers like the USA to carry out biodefense research has further generated the insecurity and generated the possibility of producing new threats. Like United States efforts developing programs of biodefense has generated new looming threats in international system because the states which view themselves as potential competitor to United States will consider the US defensive research as a threat. This generates a situation of security dilemma and hence other great powers consider necessary requirement to work on the unconventional weapons in order to have an asymmetric advantage. Moreover the dual use of technology generates further insecurity. (Erhard, 2005)




Absence of Cooperation due to Competition

The competition which is the result of mistrust, uncertainty and bioweapon dilemma hinders the major powers from cooperating with each other. This power politics among states does not allow them to cooperate at global level and generate effective and collective response towards any biological threat. (Raymond, A. 2017)

After the World War I Geneva Protocol was signed in 1925, whose purpose was to prohibit the use of poisonous gases, bacteriological techniques in war. As the use of these chemical and biological agents in war caused massive destruction but still in the coming years Japan executed appalling violations in the next coming years due to the competition phenomenon and to vanquish the adversary in war. Japan engaged in large scale testing and conducted biological research programs. Japan conducted experiments on prisoners and even used chemical agents against China in the Sino-Japanese War. The reason was the competition which impels the state to use the biological and chemical weapons. Even the great powers like Japan and United States in order to not bind themself only signed the treaty but did not ratify the Geneva Protocol. Moreover other great powers like USSR, U.K and France who ratified the treaty declared that the laws would not be binding upon them if their adversaries not respected the protocol prohibitions (Monbiot 2017) 

 Great Powers like USSR and USA also continued their biological programs. United States was even accused of using bio and chemical weapons in the Korean and Vietnam War. In the coming years USA even confirmed that it possessed the capability of producing these weapons but repudiated their use. Hence the 1925 Geneva protocol, which prohibits states from using poisonous gases and bioweapon in war was not properly abided by great powers. This exhibited the presence of competitive phenomenon among great powers, and hence they were not able to cooperate and abide by the laws. Even absence of cooperation was lucid by the fact that the USA did not ratify the treaty. (Eric 2002)

Soviet Union conducted longest, sophisticated and covert programs of bioweapons. The program was named as Biopreparat. In the Biopreparat, 60,000 people were employed, and production of poisonous toxins was done on a massive scale. Alibek who supervised nearly 32,000 persons stated it as "the darkest conspiracy of cold war" The Soviet also developed ICBM that could disperse the biological material to such large distance that it can infect the masses. Soviet Union not only worked on anthrax, plague and glanders rather it also weaponized infectious virus-like smallpox, Ebola. As the two great powers were in cold war thus the competition subdue cooperation and even the biological Weapon Convention (BWC) of 1972 which prohibits development, production and use of toxin weapons was violated by Soviet Union. Moreover, the two great powers USA and USSR due to competition even exploited the loopholes of BWC 1972 which permitted the defensive research. The defensive programs give rise to hazards and phenomena of insecurity among states as it was not possible to differentiate whether state aimed for defensive research or it is involved in research with harmful bioagents. (Ken, A. 1999)

Lack of Cooperation and enhanced Competition leading to Bioterrorism

The great powers due to enhanced competition among them lack the element of cooperation even on the critical issue like bioweapons proliferation. Even after the agreement of 1972, several states even indulged in activities which were outlawed by the 1972 agreement hence generating bioterrorism threat. 

 Radical non states actors and terrorists groups were as a result able to access the deadly pathogens and used them to cause casualties and achieve their interests. The use of deadly pathogens by non-state actors exhibits that besides states, these weapons have reached in the hands of radicals groups which have serious concern. Several incidents of bioterrorism are enumerated as follows. 

In 1984 a cult group, Rajneesh deliberately contaminated the salad bars with Salmonella Enterica consequently sickening the 751 person. The attack was basically a planned effort to influence the county election of Wasco in favor of cult members. The Japanese cult group Aum Shinrikyo in 1995 released the chemical agent sarin over the passengers of train in Tokyo causing injury to 1000 and deaths of 12 people. The radical group also used sprayed Botulinum at multiple locations in Tokyo and even used against U.S. military installations in Japan from 1990 to 1995. Aum launched 17 chemical, biological weapons attacks in which 10 attacks were carried out via chemical weapons while 7 were carried out by biological weapons with a purpose to assassinate or conduct mass murder. (Douglas 2009) 

Moreover, Al Qaeda has also been accused of exploring the biological weapons in 1998 as Aymen al Zawahiri hire Rauf Ahmed so to develop the bioweapon program. After the 2001 9/11 the danger became more realistic because of enlarge and expanding network of Al Qaeda and its disposition to kill people. Numerous media reports showed concern regarding the group's quest for WMD. Reports showed the attempts by members of Al Qaeda to manufacture or obtain Chemical, Biological, and Radiological (CBRN) weapons and use them for destruction in West and Middle East. (David 2010)

In 2001 after the 9/11 attack another bioterrorist incident took place as the letter containing anthrax spores were sent to NBC News and Daschle office, American politician via U.S. postal system, resultantly the house suspended its work and three senate office buildings closed as 26 Senate staff members and 5 police officers were exposed to anthrax. (Stefan 2004) The perpetrator was senior researcher and microbiologist which showed that the scientific research can be exploited and even the same research can generate threats to state if it goes into wrong hands. Moreover ISIS, according to leaked note was believed that it had plans to use bioweapons against America (David 2010) 

Besides the bioterrorist attacks by the radical non state actors, the state sponsored programs have also been executed and have increased over the years. This clarifies the involvement of states in competition and hence supplementing the bioterrorism. (Sammy 2005) The state sponsored terrorism implies the support of radical groups by states with weapons, money so as to achieve more goals. In 1978 Markov, a Bulgarian exile was attacked using an umbrella. The assassin was an agent of Bulgarian secret service and technology which used was provided by the Soviet Union. (John 2001)

Conclusion

Hence we can say that states for ages due to phenomena of competition have been involved in using the biological and chemical weapons against their enemies. These states in order to increase their security and vanquish the opponent even employed lethal gases and biological weapons in world wars and proxy wars. In addition these deadly weapons did not stay in hands of states but later terrorists groups were also able to access them due to competition among states. As a result these radical and cult groups even employed bio and chemical weapons at different occasion so as to achieve personal interests. Hence we can say that the bio and chemical weapons competition among states led to bioterrorism and as a result generated many challenges for human lives. 

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